Vocabulary
- Absolute threshold
- The smallest amount of stimulation needed for detection by a sense.
- Acceptance and commitment therapy
- A therapeutic approach designed to foster nonjudgmental observation of one’s own mental processes.
- Action potential
- A transient all-or-nothing electrical current that is conducted down the axon when the membrane potential reaches the threshold of excitation.
- Action Potential
- A transient all-or-nothing electrical current that is conducted down the axon when the membrane potential reaches the threshold of excitation.
- Adherence
- In health, it is the ability of a patient to maintain a health behavior prescribed by a physician. This might include taking medication as prescribed, exercising more, or eating less high-fat food.
- Adoption study
- A behavior genetic research method that involves comparison of adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents.
- Affect
- Feelings that can be described in terms of two dimensions, the dimensions of arousal and valence (Figure 2). For example, high arousal positive states refer to excitement, elation, and enthusiasm. Low arousal positive states refer to calm, peacefulness, and relaxation. Whereas “actual affect” refers to the states that people actually feel, “ideal affect” refers to the states that people ideally want to feel.
- Agnosia
- Loss of the ability to perceive stimuli.
- Agoraphobia
- A sort of anxiety disorder distinguished by feelings that a place is uncomfortable or may be unsafe because it is significantly open or crowded.
- Agreeableness
- A personality trait that reflects a person’s tendency to be compassionate, cooperative, warm, and caring to others. People low in agreeableness tend to be rude, hostile, and to pursue their own interests over those of others.
- Anchoring
- The bias to be affected by an initial anchor, even if the anchor is arbitrary, and to insufficiently adjust our judgments away from that anchor.
- Anecdotal evidence
- A piece of biased evidence, usually drawn from personal experience, used to support a conclusion that may or may not be correct.
- Anhedonia
- Loss of interest or pleasure in activities one previously found enjoyable or rewarding.
- Animism
- The belief that everyone and everything had a “soul” and that mental illness was due to animistic causes, for example, evil spirits controlling an individual and his/her behavior.
- Anosmia
- Loss of the ability to smell.
- Anxiety
- A mood state characterized by negative affect, muscle tension, and physical arousal in which a person apprehensively anticipates future danger or misfortune.
- Asylum
- A place of refuge or safety established to confine and care for the mentally ill; forerunners of the mental hospital or psychiatric facility.
- Attachment behavioral system
- A motivational system selected over the course of evolution to maintain proximity between a young child and his or her primary attachment figure.
- Attachment behaviors
- Behaviors and signals that attract the attention of a primary attachment figure and function to prevent separation from that individual or to reestablish proximity to that individual (e.g., crying, clinging).
- Attachment figure
- Someone who functions as the primary safe haven and secure base for an individual. In childhood, an individual’s attachment figure is often a parent. In adulthood, an individual’s attachment figure is often a romantic partner.
- Attachment patterns
- (also called “attachment styles” or “attachment orientations”) Individual differences in how securely (vs. insecurely) people think, feel, and behave in attachment relationships.
- Attitude
- A way of thinking or feeling about a target that is often reflected in a person’s behavior. Examples of attitude targets are individuals, concepts, and groups.
- Attraction
- The psychological process of being sexually interested in another person. This can include, for example, physical attraction, first impressions, and dating rituals.
- Attributional style
- The tendency by which a person infers the cause or meaning of behaviors or events.
- Audience design
- Constructing utterances to suit the audience’s knowledge.
- Audition
- Ability to process auditory stimuli. Also called hearing.
- Auditory canal
- Tube running from the outer ear to the middle ear.
- Auditory hair cells
- Receptors in the cochlea that transduce sound into electrical potentials.
- A parenting style characterized by high (but reasonable) expectations for children’s behavior, good communication, warmth and nurturance, and the use of reasoning (rather than coercion) as preferred responses to children’s misbehavior.
- Autobiographical memory
- Memory for the events of one’s life.
- Automatic
- Automatic biases are unintended, immediate, and irresistible.
- Automatic thoughts
- Thoughts that occur spontaneously; often used to describe problematic thoughts that maintain mental disorders.
- Aversive racism
- Aversive racism is unexamined racial bias that the person does not intend and would reject, but that avoids inter-racial contact.
- Axon
- Part of the neuron that extends off the soma, splitting several times to connect with other neurons; main output of the neuron.
- Axon
- Part of the neuron that extends off the soma, splitting several times to connect with other neurons; main output of the neuron.
- Basic-level category
- The neutral, preferred category for a given object, at an intermediate level of specificity.
- Behavioral genetics
- The empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior.
- Behavioral medicine
- A field similar to health psychology that integrates psychological factors (e.g., emotion, behavior, cognition, and social factors) in the treatment of disease. This applied field includes clinical areas of study, such as occupational therapy, hypnosis, rehabilitation or medicine, and preventative medicine.
- Behaviorism
- The study of behavior.
- Biases
- The systematic and predictable mistakes that influence the judgment of even very talented human beings.
- Binocular disparity
- Difference is images processed by the left and right eyes.
- Binocular vision
- Our ability to perceive 3D and depth because of the difference between the images on each of our retinas.
- Biofeedback
- The process by which physiological signals, not normally available to human perception, are transformed into easy-to-understand graphs or numbers. Individuals can then use this information to try to change bodily functioning (e.g., lower blood pressure, reduce muscle tension).
- Biological vulnerability
- A specific genetic and neurobiological factor that might predispose someone to develop anxiety disorders.
- Biomedical Model of Health
- A reductionist model that posits that ill health is a result of a deviation from normal function, which is explained by the presence of pathogens, injury, or genetic abnormality.
- A model in which the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors is seen as influencing the development of the individual.
- An approach to studying health and human function that posits the importance of biological, psychological, and social (or environmental) processes.
- Blatant biases
- Blatant biases are conscious beliefs, feelings, and behavior that people are perfectly willing to admit, are mostly hostile, and openly favor their own group.
- Blind to the research hypothesis
- When participants in research are not aware of what is being studied.
- Blocking
- In classical conditioning, the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials. Suggests that information, surprise value, or prediction error is important in conditioning.
- Blood Alcohol Content (BAC)
- Blood Alcohol Content (BAC): a measure of the percentage of alcohol found in a person’s blood. This measure is typically the standard used to determine the extent to which a person is intoxicated, as in the case of being too impaired to drive a vehicle.
- Bottom-up processing
- Building up to perceptual experience from individual pieces.
- Bounded awareness
- The systematic ways in which we fail to notice obvious and important information that is available to us.
- Bounded ethicality
- The systematic ways in which our ethics are limited in ways we are not even aware of ourselves.
- Bounded rationality
- Model of human behavior that suggests that humans try to make rational decisions but are bounded due to cognitive limitations.
- Bounded self-interest
- The systematic and predictable ways in which we care about the outcomes of others.
- Bounded willpower
- The tendency to place greater weight on present concerns rather than future concerns.
- Brain Stem
- The “trunk” of the brain comprised of the medulla, pons, midbrain, and diencephalon.
- Broca’s Area
- An area in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere. Implicated in language production.
- Cartesian catastrophe
- The idea that mental processes taking place outside conscious awareness are impossible.
- Categorize
- To sort or arrange different items into classes or categories.
- Category
- A set of entities that are equivalent in some way. Usually the items are similar to one another.
- Cathartic method
- A therapeutic procedure introduced by Breuer and developed further by Freud in the late 19th century whereby a patient gains insight and emotional relief from recalling and reliving traumatic events.
- Causality
- In research, the determination that one variable causes—is responsible for—an effect.
- Cell membrane
- A bi-lipid layer of molecules that separates the cell from the surrounding extracellular fluid.
- Central Nervous System
- The portion of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord.
- Cerebellum
- The distinctive structure at the back of the brain, Latin for “small brain.”
- Cerebrum
- Usually refers to the cerebral cortex and associated white matter, but in some texts includes the subcortical structures.
- Character strength
- A positive trait or quality deemed to be morally good and is valued for itself as well as for promoting individual and collective well-being.
- Chemical senses
- Our ability to process the environmental stimuli of smell and taste.
- Chronic disease
- A health condition that persists over time, typically for periods longer than three months (e.g., HIV, asthma, diabetes).
- Chronic stress
- Discrete or related problematic events and conditions which persist over time and result in prolonged activation of the biological and/or psychological stress response (e.g., unemployment, ongoing health difficulties, marital discord).
- Chutes and Ladders
- A numerical board game that seems to be useful for building numerical knowledge.
- Circadian Rhythm
- Circadian Rhythm: The physiological sleep-wake cycle. It is influenced by exposure to sunlight as well as daily schedule and activity. Biologically, it includes changes in body temperature, blood pressure and blood sugar.
- Classical conditioning
- The procedure in which an initially neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (or US). The result is that the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit a conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning is nowadays considered important as both a behavioral phenomenon and as a method to study simple associative learning. Same as Pavlovian conditioning.
- Cochlea
- Spiral bone structure in the inner ear containing auditory hair cells.
- Cognitive bias modification
- Using exercises (e.g., computer games) to change problematic thinking habits.
- Cognitive psychology
- The study of mental processes.
- Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
- A family of approaches with the goal of changing the thoughts and behaviors that influence psychopathology.
- Common ground
- Information that is shared by people who engage in a conversation.
- Comorbidity
- Describes a state of having more than one psychological or physical disorder at a given time.
- Concept
- The mental representation of a category.
- Concrete operations stage
- Piagetian stage between ages 7 and 12 when children can think logically about concrete situations but not engage in systematic scientific reasoning.
- Conditioned compensatory response
- In classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response. It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response. Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli.
- Conditioned response
- A learned reaction following classical conditioning, or the process by which an event that automatically elicits a response is repeatedly paired with another neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus), resulting in the ability of the neutral stimulus to elicit the same response on its own.
- Conditioned response (CR)
- The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place.
- Conditioned stimulus (CS)
- An initially neutral stimulus (like a bell, light, or tone) that elicits a conditioned response after it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
- Cones
- Photoreceptors of the retina sensitive to color. Located primarily in the fovea.
- Conformity
- Changing one’s attitude or behavior to match a perceived social norm.
- Conformity
- Changing one’s attitude or behavior to match a perceived social norm.
- Confounds
- Factors that undermine the ability to draw causal inferences from an experiment.
- Conscience
- The cognitive, emotional, and social influences that cause young children to create and act consistently with internal standards of conduct.
- Conscientiousness
- A personality trait that reflects a person’s tendency to be careful, organized, hardworking, and to follow rules.
- Conscious
- Having knowledge of something external or internal to oneself; being aware of and responding to one’s surroundings.
- Consciousness
- Awareness of ourselves and our environment.
- Consciousness
- Consciousness: the awareness or deliberate perception of a stimulus
- Conservation problems
- Problems pioneered by Piaget in which physical transformation of an object or set of objects changes a perceptually salient dimension but not the quantity that is being asked about.
- Consolidation
- The process occurring after encoding that is believed to stabilize memory traces.
- Context
- Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs. For instance, the Skinner box or room in which learning takes place is the classic example of a context. However, “context” can also be provided by internal stimuli, such as the sensory effects of drugs (e.g., being under the influence of alcohol has stimulus properties that provide a context) and mood states (e.g., being happy or sad). It can also be provided by a specific period in time—the passage of time is sometimes said to change the “temporal context.”
- Continuous development
- Ways in which development occurs in a gradual incremental manner, rather than through sudden jumps.
- Continuous distributions
- Characteristics can go from low to high, with all different intermediate values possible. One does not simply have the trait or not have it, but can possess varying amounts of it.
- Contralateral
- Literally “opposite side”; used to refer to the fact that the two hemispheres of the brain process sensory information and motor commands for the opposite side of the body (e.g., the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body).
- Control
- Feeling like you have the power to change your environment or behavior if you need or want to.
- Corpus Callosum
- The thick bundle of nerve cells that connect the two hemispheres of the brain and allow them to communicate.
- Correlation
- Measures the association between two variables, or how they go together.
- Correlation
- In statistics, the measure of relatedness of two or more variables.
- Cue overload principle
- The principle stating that the more memories that are associated to a particular retrieval cue, the less effective the cue will be in prompting retrieval of any one memory.
- Cues
- Cues: a stimulus that has a particular significance to the perceiver (e.g., a sight or a sound that has special relevance to the person who saw or heard it)
- Cultural display rules
- These are rules that are learned early in life that specify the management and modification of emotional expressions according to social circumstances. Cultural display rules can work in a number of different ways. For example, they can require individuals to express emotions “as is” (i.e., as they feel them), to exaggerate their expressions to show more than what is actually felt, to tone down their expressions to show less than what is actually felt, to conceal their feelings by expressing something else, or to show nothing at all.
- Cultural relativism
- The idea that cultural norms and values of a society can only be understood on their own terms or in their own context.
- Culture
- Shared, socially transmitted ideas (e.g., values, beliefs, attitudes) that are reflected in and reinforced by institutions, products, and rituals.
- Culture of honor
- A culture in which personal or family reputation is especially important.
- Daily hassles
- Irritations in daily life that are not necessarily traumatic, but that cause difficulties and repeated stress.
- Dark adaptation
- Adjustment of eye to low levels of light.
- Data (also called observations)
- In research, information systematically collected for analysis and interpretation.
- Deductive reasoning
- A form of reasoning in which a given premise determines the interpretation of specific observations (e.g., All birds have feathers; since a duck is a bird, it has feathers).
- Dendrite
- Part of a neuron that extends away from the cell body and is the main input to the neuron.
- Dendrites
- Part of a neuron that extends away from the cell body and is the main input to the neuron.
- Dependent variable
- The variable the researcher measures but does not manipulate in an experiment.
- Depressants
- Depressants: a class of drugs that slow down the body’s physiological and mental processes.
- Depth perception
- The ability to actively perceive the distance from oneself of objects in the environment.
- Descriptive norm
- The perception of what most people do in a given situation.
- Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)
- A treatment often used for borderline personality disorder that incorporates both cognitive-behavioral and mindfulness elements.
- Dialectical worldview
- A perspective in DBT that emphasizes the joint importance of change and acceptance.
- Dichotic listening
- An experimental task in which two messages are presented to different ears.
- Dichotic listening
- A task in which different audio streams are presented to each ear. Typically, people are asked to monitor one stream while ignoring the other.
- Differential threshold (or difference threshold)
- The smallest difference needed in order to differentiate two stimuli. (See Just Noticeable Difference (JND))
- Diffuse Optical Imaging (DOI)
- A neuroimaging technique that infers brain activity by measuring changes in light as it is passed through the skull and surface of the brain.
- Diffusion
- The force on molecules to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.
- Discontinuous development
- Discontinuous development
- Discrimination
- Discrimination is behavior that advantages or disadvantages people merely based on their group membership.
- Discrimination
- Discrimination is behavior that advantages or disadvantages people merely based on their group membership.
- Discriminative stimulus
- In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. It is said to “set the occasion” for the operant response.
- Dissociation
- Dissociation: the heightened focus on one stimulus or thought such that many other things around you are ignored; a disconnect between one’s awareness of their environment and the one object the person is focusing on
- Distinctiveness
- The principle that unusual events (in a context of similar events) will be recalled and recognized better than uniform (nondistinctive) events.
- Distractor task
- A task that is designed to make a person think about something unrelated to an impending decision.
- Distribution
- In statistics, the relative frequency that a particular value occurs for each possible value of a given variable.
- Divided attention
- The ability to flexibly allocate attentional resources between two or more concurrent tasks.
- DNA methylation
- Covalent modifications of mammalian DNA occurring via the methylation of cytosine, typically in the context of the CpG dinucleotide.
- DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs)
- Enzymes that establish and maintain DNA methylation using methyl-group donor compounds or cofactors. The main mammalian DNMTs are DNMT1, which maintains methylation state across DNA replication, and DNMT3a and DNMT3b, which perform de novo methylation.
- Dorsal pathway
- Pathway of visual processing. The “where” pathway.
- Early adversity
- Single or multiple acute or chronic stressful events, which may be biological or psychological in nature (e.g., poverty, abuse, childhood illness or injury), occurring during childhood and resulting in a biological and/or psychological stress response.
- EEG
- (Electroencephalography) The recording of the brain’s electrical activity over a period of time by placing electrodes on the scalp.
- Effortful control
- A temperament quality that enables children to be more successful in motivated self-regulation.
- Ego defenses
- Mental strategies, rooted in the ego, that we use to manage anxiety when we feel threatened (some examples include repression, denial, sublimation, and reaction formation).
- Electroencephalography (EEG)
- A neuroimaging technique that measures electrical brain activity via multiple electrodes on the scalp.
- Electrostatic pressure
- The force on two ions with similar charge to repel each other; the force of two ions with opposite charge to attract to one another.
- Emotion-focused coping
- Coping strategy aimed at reducing the negative emotions associated with a stressful event.
- Emotions
- Changes in subjective experience, physiological responding, and behavior in response to a meaningful event. Emotions tend to occur on the order of seconds (in contract to moods which may last for days).
- Empirical
- Concerned with observation and/or the ability to verify a claim.
- Empirical methods
- Approaches to inquiry that are tied to actual measurement and observation.
- Empiricism
- The belief that knowledge comes from experience.
- Encoding
- The initial experience of perceiving and learning events.
- Encoding specificity principle
- The hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information encoded from the cue overlaps or matches information in the engram or memory trace.
- Engrams
- A term indicating the change in the nervous system representing an event; also, memory trace.
- Epigenetics
- The study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence. Epigenetic marks include covalent DNA modifications and posttranslational histone modifications.
- Epigenome
- The genome-wide distribution of epigenetic marks.
- Episodic memory
- Memory for events in a particular time and place.
- Ethics
- Professional guidelines that offer researchers a template for making decisions that protect research participants from potential harm and that help steer scientists away from conflicts of interest or other situations that might compromise the integrity of their research.
- Etiology
- The causal description of all of the factors that contribute to the development of a disorder or illness.
- Eugenics
- The practice of selective breeding to promote desired traits.
- Euphoria
- Euphoria: an intense feeling of pleasure, excitement or happiness.
- Eureka experience
- When a creative product enters consciousness.
- Excitatory postsynaptic potentials
- A depolarizing postsynaptic current that causes the membrane potential to become more positive and move towards the threshold of excitation.
- Exemplar
- An example in memory that is labeled as being in a particular category.
- Experimenter expectations
- When the experimenter’s expectations influence the outcome of a study.
- Exposure therapy
- A form of intervention in which the patient engages with a problematic (usually feared) situation without avoidance or escape.
- External cues
- Stimuli in the outside world that serve as triggers for anxiety or as reminders of past traumatic events.
- Extinction
- Decrease in the strength of a learned behavior that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behavior is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning). The term describes both the procedure (the US or reinforcer is no longer presented) as well as the result of the procedure (the learned response declines). Behaviors that have been reduced in strength through extinction are said to be “extinguished.”
- Extraversion
- A personality trait that reflects a person’s tendency to be sociable, outgoing, active, and assertive.
- Facets
- Broad personality traits can be broken down into narrower facets or aspects of the trait. For example, extraversion has several facets, such as sociability, dominance, risk-taking and so forth.
- Fact
- Objective information about the world.
- Factor analysis
- A statistical technique for grouping similar things together according to how highly they are associated.
- Falsify
- In science, the ability of a claim to be tested and—possibly—refuted; a defining feature of science.
- Family Stress Model
- A description of the negative effects of family financial difficulty on child adjustment through the effects of economic stress on parents’ depressed mood, increased marital problems, and poor parenting.
- Fear conditioning
- A type of classical or Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock. As a consequence of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear. The phenomenon is thought to be involved in the development of anxiety disorders in humans.
- Feelings
- A general term used to describe a wide range of states that include emotions, moods, traits and that typically involve changes in subjective experience, physiological responding, and behavior in response to a meaningful event. Emotions typically occur on the order of seconds, whereas moods may last for days, and traits are tendencies to respond a certain way across various situations.
- Fight or flight response
- A biological reaction to alarming stressors that prepares the body to resist or escape a threat.
- Five-Factor Model
- (also called the Big Five) The Five-Factor Model is a widely accepted model of personality traits. Advocates of the model believe that much of the variability in people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors can be summarized with five broad traits. These five traits are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
- Flashback
- Sudden, intense re-experiencing of a previous event, usually trauma-related.
- Flashbulb memory
- Vivid personal memories of receiving the news of some momentous (and usually emotional) event.
- Flashbulb memory
- A highly detailed and vivid memory of an emotionally significant event.
- Flavor
- The combination of smell and taste.
- Flexible Correction Model
- Flexible Correction Model: the ability for people to correct or change their beliefs and evaluations if they believe these judgments have been biased (e.g., if someone realizes they only thought their day was great because it was sunny, they may revise their evaluation of the day to account for this “biasing” influence of the weather)
- Flourishing
- To live optimally psychologically, relationally, and spiritually.
- Forgiveness
- The letting go of negative thoughts, feelings, and behaviors toward an offender.
- Formal operations stage
- Piagetian stage starting at age 12 years and continuing for the rest of life, in which adolescents may gain the reasoning powers of educated adults.
- Framing
- The bias to be systematically affected by the way in which information is presented, while holding the objective information constant.
- Free association
- In psychodynamic therapy, a process in which the patient reports all thoughts that come to mind without censorship, and these thoughts are interpreted by the therapist.
- Frontal Lobe
- The front most (anterior) part of the cerebrum; anterior to the central sulcus and responsible for motor output and planning, language, judgment, and decision-making.
- Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): A neuroimaging technique that infers brain activity by measuring changes in oxygen levels in the blood.
- Functionalism
- A school of American psychology that focused on the utility of consciousness.
- Fundamental attribution error
- The tendency to emphasize another person’s personality traits when describing that person’s motives and behaviors and overlooking the influence of situational factors.
- Gender schemas
- Organized beliefs and expectations about maleness and femaleness that guide children’s thinking about gender.
- Gene
- A specific deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence that codes for a specific polypeptide or protein or an observable inherited trait.
- General Adaptation Syndrome
- A three-phase model of stress, which includes a mobilization of physiological resources phase, a coping phase, and an exhaustion phase (i.e., when an organism fails to cope with the stress adequately and depletes its resources).
- Generalize
- In research, the degree to which one can extend conclusions drawn from the findings of a study to other groups or situations not included in the study.
- Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
- Excessive worry about everyday things that is at a level that is out of proportion to the specific causes of worry.
- Genome-wide association study (GWAS)
- A study that maps DNA polymorphisms in affected individuals and controls matched for age, sex, and ethnic background with the aim of identifying causal genetic variants.
- Genotype
- The DNA content of a cell’s nucleus, whether a trait is externally observable or not.
- Gestalt psychology
- An attempt to study the unity of experience.
- Goal-directed behavior
- Instrumental behavior that is influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the association between the behavior and its consequence and the current value of the consequence. Sensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect.
- Goodness of fit
- The match or synchrony between a child’s temperament and characteristics of parental care that contributes to positive or negative personality development. A good “fit” means that parents have accommodated to the child’s temperamental attributes, and this contributes to positive personality growth and better adjustment.
- Grandiosity
- Inflated self-esteem or an exaggerated sense of self-importance and self-worth (e.g., believing one has special powers or superior abilities).
- Gratitude
- A feeling of appreciation or thankfulness in response to receiving a benefit.
- Gustation
- Ability to process gustatory stimuli. Also called taste.
- Habit
- Instrumental behavior that occurs automatically in the presence of a stimulus and is no longer influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the value of the reinforcer. Insensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect.
- Hallucinogens
- Hallucinogens: substances that, when ingested, alter a person’s perceptions, often by creating hallucinations that are not real or distorting their perceptions of time.
- Health
- According to the World Health Organization, it is a complete state of physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
- Health behavior
- Any behavior that is related to health—either good or bad.
- Heritability coefficient
- An easily misinterpreted statistical construct that purports to measure the role of genetics in the explanation of differences among individuals.
- Heuristics
- cognitive (or thinking) strategies that simplify decision making by using mental short-cuts
- HEXACO model
- The HEXACO model is an alternative to the Five-Factor Model. The HEXACO model includes six traits, five of which are variants of the traits included in the Big Five (Emotionality [E], Extraversion [X], Agreeableness [A], Conscientiousness [C], and Openness [O]). The sixth factor, Honesty-Humility [H], is unique to this model.
- Histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs)
- HATs are enzymes that transfer acetyl groups to specific positions on histone tails, promoting an “open” chromatin state and transcriptional activation. HDACs remove these acetyl groups, resulting in a “closed” chromatin state and transcriptional repression.
- Histone modifications
- Posttranslational modifications of the N-terminal “tails” of histone proteins that serve as a major mode of epigenetic regulation. These modifications include acetylation, phosphorylation, methylation, sumoylation, ubiquitination, and ADP-ribosylation.
- Hostility
- An experience or trait with cognitive, behavioral, and emotional components. It often includes cynical thoughts, feelings of emotion, and aggressive behavior.
- Humility
- Having an accurate view of self—not too high or low—and a realistic appraisal of one’s strengths and weaknesses, especially in relation to other people.
- Humorism (or humoralism)
- A belief held by ancient Greek and Roman physicians (and until the 19th century) that an excess or deficiency in any of the four bodily fluids, or humors—blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm—directly affected their health and temperament.
- Hypersomnia
- Excessive daytime sleepiness, including difficulty staying awake or napping, or prolonged sleep episodes.
- Hypnosis
- Hypnosis: the state of consciousness whereby a person is highly responsive to the suggestions of another; this state usually involves a dissociation with one’s environment and an intense focus on a single stimulus, which is usually accompanied by a sense of relaxation
- Hypnotherapy
- Hypnotherapy: The use of hypnotic techniques such as relaxation and suggestion to help engineer desirable change such as lower pain or quitting smoking.
- Hypotheses
- A logical idea that can be tested.
- Hypothesis
- A possible explanation that can be tested through research.
- Hypothesis
- A tentative explanation that is subject to testing.
- Hysteria
- Term used by the ancient Greeks and Egyptians to describe a disorder believed to be caused by a woman’s uterus wandering throughout the body and interfering with other organs (today referred to as conversion disorder, in which psychological problems are expressed in physical form).
- Identical twins
- Two individual organisms that originated from the same zygote and therefore are genetically identical or very similar. The epigenetic profiling of identical twins discordant for disease is a unique experimental design as it eliminates the DNA sequence-, age-, and sex-differences from consideration.
- Implicit Association Test
- Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures relatively automatic biases that favor own group relative to other groups.
- Implicit Associations Test
- Implicit Associations Test (IAT): A computer reaction time test that measures a person’s automatic associations with concepts. For instance, the IAT could be used to measure how quickly a person makes positive or negative evaluations of members of various ethnic groups.
- Inattentional blindness
- The failure to notice a fully visible object when attention is devoted to something else.
- Inattentional blindness
- The failure to notice a fully visible, but unexpected, object or event when attention is devoted to something else.
- Inattentional deafness
- The auditory analog of inattentional blindness. People fail to notice an unexpected sound or voice when attention is devoted to other aspects of a scene.
- Independent
- Two characteristics or traits are separate from one another-- a person can be high on one and low on the other, or vice-versa. Some correlated traits are relatively independent in that although there is a tendency for a person high on one to also be high on the other, this is not always the case.
- Independent self
- A model or view of the self as distinct from others and as stable across different situations. The goal of the independent self is to express and assert the self, and to influence others. This model of self is prevalent in many individualistic, Western contexts (e.g., the United States, Australia, Western Europe).
- Independent variable
- The variable the researcher manipulates and controls in an experiment.
- Individual differences
- Ways in which people differ in terms of their behavior, emotion, cognition, and development.
- Induction
- To draw general conclusions from specific observations.
- Inductive reasoning
- A form of reasoning in which a general conclusion is inferred from a set of observations (e.g., noting that “the driver in that car was texting; he just cut me off then ran a red light!” (a specific observation), which leads to the general conclusion that texting while driving is dangerous).
- Information processing theories
- Theories that focus on describing the cognitive processes that underlie thinking at any one age and cognitive growth over time.
- Informational influence
- Conformity that results from a concern to act in a socially approved manner as determined by how others act.
- Ingroup
- Group to which a person belongs.
- Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
- A hyperpolarizing postsynaptic current that causes the membrane potential to become more negative and move away from the threshold of excitation.
- Instrumental conditioning
- Process in which animals learn about the relationship between their behaviors and their consequences. Also known as operant conditioning.
- Integrative or eclectic psychotherapy
- Also called integrative psychotherapy, this term refers to approaches combining multiple orientations (e.g., CBT with psychoanalytic elements).
- Integrative or eclectic psychotherapy
- Also called integrative psychotherapy, this term refers to approaches combining multiple orientations (e.g., CBT with psychoanalytic elements).
- Interdependent self
- A model or view of the self as connected to others and as changing in response to different situations. The goal of the interdependent self is to suppress personal preferences and desires, and to adjust to others. This model of self is prevalent in many collectivistic, East Asian contexts (e.g., China, Japan, Korea).
- Internal bodily or somatic cues
- Physical sensations that serve as triggers for anxiety or as reminders of past traumatic events.
- Interoceptive avoidance
- Avoidance of situations or activities that produce sensations of physical arousal similar to those occurring during a panic attack or intense fear response.
- Interpersonal
- This refers to the relationship or interaction between two or more individuals in a group. Thus, the interpersonal functions of emotion refer to the effects of one’s emotion on others, or to the relationship between oneself and others.
- Intrapersonal
- This refers to what occurs within oneself. Thus, the intrapersonal functions of emotion refer to the effects of emotion to individuals that occur physically inside their bodies and psychologically inside their minds.
- Introspection
- A method of focusing on internal processes.
- Ion channels
- Proteins that span the cell membrane, forming channels that specific ions can flow through between the intracellular and extracellular space.
- Ionotropic receptor
- Ion channel that opens to allow ions to permeate the cell membrane under specific conditions, such as the presence of a neurotransmitter or a specific membrane potential.
- Jet Lag
- Jet Lag: The state of being fatigued and/or having difficulty adjusting to a new time zone after traveling a long distance (across multiple time zones).
- Just noticeable difference (JND)
- The smallest difference needed in order to differentiate two stimuli. (see Differential Threshold)
- Law of effect
- The idea that instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effects. Responses that are followed by a pleasant state of affairs will be strengthened and those that are followed by discomfort will be weakened. Nowadays, the term refers to the idea that operant or instrumental behaviors are lawfully controlled by their consequences.
- Levels of analysis
- In science, there are complementary understandings and explanations of phenomena.
- Levels of analysis
- Complementary views for analyzing and understanding a phenomenon.
- Lexical hypothesis
- The lexical hypothesis is the idea that the most important differences between people will be encoded in the language that we use to describe people. Therefore, if we want to know which personality traits are most important, we can look to the language that people use to describe themselves and others.
- Lexicon
- Words and expressions.
- Light adaptation
- Adjustment of eye to high levels of light.
- Limbic System
- Includes the subcortical structures of the amygdala and hippocampal formation as well as some cortical structures; responsible for aversion and gratification.
- Limited capacity
- The notion that humans have limited mental resources that can be used at a given time.
- Linguistic intergroup bias
- A tendency for people to characterize positive things about their ingroup using more abstract expressions, but negative things about their outgroups using more abstract expressions.
- Longitudinal study
- A study that follows the same group of individuals over time.
- Maladaptive
- Term referring to behaviors that cause people who have them physical or emotional harm, prevent them from functioning in daily life, and/or indicate that they have lost touch with reality and/or cannot control their thoughts and behavior (also called dysfunctional).
- Mechanoreceptors
- Mechanical sensory receptors in the skin that response to tactile stimulation.
- Melatonin
- Melatonin: A hormone associated with increased drowsiness and sleep.
- Memory traces
- A term indicating the change in the nervous system representing an event.
- Mere-exposure effects
- The result of developing a more positive attitude towards a stimulus after repeated instances of mere exposure to it.
- Mesmerism
- Derived from Franz Anton Mesmer in the late 18th century, an early version of hypnotism in which Mesmer claimed that hysterical symptoms could be treated through animal magnetism emanating from Mesmer’s body and permeating the universe (and later through magnets); later explained in terms of high suggestibility in individuals.
- Mind–body connection
- The idea that our emotions and thoughts can affect how our body functions.
- Mindfulness
- A process that reflects a nonjudgmental, yet attentive, mental state.
- Mindfulness
- Mindfulness: a state of heightened focus on the thoughts passing through one’s head, as well as a more controlled evaluation of those thoughts (e.g., do you reject or support the thoughts you’re having?)
- Mindfulness-based therapy
- A form of psychotherapy grounded in mindfulness theory and practice, often involving meditation, yoga, body scan, and other features of mindfulness exercises.
- Misinformation effect
- When erroneous information occurring after an event is remembered as having been part of the original event.
- Mnemonic devices
- A strategy for remembering large amounts of information, usually involving imaging events occurring on a journey or with some other set of memorized cues.
- Model minority
- A minority group whose members are perceived as achieving a higher degree of socioeconomic success than the population average.
- Multimodal perception
- The effects that concurrent stimulation in more than one sensory modality has on the perception of events and objects in the world.
- Myelin Sheath
- Fatty tissue, that insulates the axons of the neurons; myelin is necessary for normal conduction of electrical impulses among neurons.
- Myelin sheath
- Substance around the axon of a neuron that serves as insulation to allow the action potential to conduct rapidly toward the terminal buttons.
- Nature
- The genes that children bring with them to life and that influence all aspects of their development.
- Need to belong
- A strong natural impulse in humans to form social connections and to be accepted by others.
- Nervous System
- The body’s network for electrochemical communication. This system includes all the nerves cells in the body.
- Neural impulse
- An electro-chemical signal that enables neurons to communicate.
- Neurons
- Individual brain cells
- Neuropsychoanalysis
- An integrative, interdisciplinary domain of inquiry seeking to integrate psychoanalytic and neuropsychological ideas and findings to enhance both areas of inquiry (you can learn more by visiting the webpage of the International Neuropsychoanalysis Society at http://www.neuropsa.org.uk/).
- Neuroticism
- A personality trait that reflects the tendency to be interpersonally sensitive and the tendency to experience negative emotions like anxiety, fear, sadness, and anger.
- Neurotransmitters
- Chemical substance released by the presynaptic terminal button that acts on the postsynaptic cell.
- Neurotransmitters
- Chemical substance released by the presynaptic terminal button that acts on the postsynaptic cell.
- Nociception
- Our ability to sense pain.
- Normative influence
- Conformity that results from a concern for what other people think of us.
- Nucleus
- Collection of nerve cells found in the brain which typically serve a specific function.
- Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST)
- In statistics, a test created to determine the chances that an alternative hypothesis would produce a result as extreme as the one observed if the null hypothesis were actually true.
- Numerical magnitudes
- The sizes of numbers.
- Nurture
- The environments, starting with the womb, that influence all aspects of children’s development.
- Obedience
- Responding to an order or command from a person in a position of authority.
- Obedience
- Responding to an order or command from a person in a position of authority.
- Object permanence task
- The Piagetian task in which infants below about 9 months of age fail to search for an object that is removed from their sight and, if not allowed to search immediately for the object, act as if they do not know that it continues to exist.
- Object relations theory
- A modern offshoot of the psychodynamic perspective, this theory contends that personality can be understood as reflecting mental images of significant figures (especially the parents) that we form early in life in response to interactions taking place within the family; these mental images serve as templates (or “scripts”) for later interpersonal relationships.
- Objective
- Being free of personal bias.
- Observational learning
- Learning by observing the behavior of others.
- Observational learning
- Learning by observing the behavior of others.
- Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
- A disorder characterized by the desire to engage in certain behaviors excessively or compulsively in hopes of reducing anxiety. Behaviors include things such as cleaning, repeatedly opening and closing doors, hoarding, and obsessing over certain thoughts.
- Occipital Lobe
- The back most (posterior) part of the cerebrum; involved in vision.
- Odorants
- Chemicals transduced by olfactory receptors.
- Olfaction
- Ability to process olfactory stimuli. Also called smell.
- Olfactory epithelium
- Organ containing olfactory receptors.
- Openness to Experience
- A personality trait that reflects a person’s tendency to seek out and to appreciate new things, including thoughts, feelings, values, and experiences.
- Operant
- A behavior that is controlled by its consequences. The simplest example is the rat’s lever-pressing, which is controlled by the presentation of the reinforcer.
- Operant conditioning
- See instrumental conditioning.
- Operational definitions
- How researchers specifically measure a concept.
- Opponent-process theory
- Theory proposing color vision as influenced by cells responsive to pairs of colors.
- Ossicles
- A collection of three small bones in the middle ear that vibrate against the tympanic membrane.
- Outgroup
- Group to which a person does not belong.
- Overconfident
- The bias to have greater confidence in your judgment than is warranted based on a rational assessment.
- Panic disorder (PD)
- A condition marked by regular strong panic attacks, and which may include significant levels of worry about future attacks.
- Parietal Lobe
- The part of the cerebrum between the frontal and occipital lobes; involved in bodily sensations, visual attention, and integrating the senses.
- Participant demand
- When participants behave in a way that they think the experimenter wants them to behave.
- Pavlovian conditioning
- See classical conditioning.
- Perception
- The psychological process of interpreting sensory information.
- Peripheral Nervous System
- All of the nerve cells that connect the central nervous system to all the other parts of the body.
- Personality
- Enduring predispositions that characterize a person, such as styles of thought, feelings and behavior.
- Personality traits
- Enduring dispositions in behavior that show differences across individuals, and which tend to characterize the person across varying types of situations.
- Person-centered therapy
- A therapeutic approach focused on creating a supportive environment for self-discovery.
- Person-situation debate
- The person-situation debate is a historical debate about the relative power of personality traits as compared to situational influences on behavior. The situationist critique, which started the person-situation debate, suggested that people overestimate the extent to which personality traits are consistent across situations.
- Phantom limb
- The perception that a missing limb still exists.
- Phantom limb pain
- Pain in a limb that no longer exists.
- Phenotype
- The pattern of expression of the genotype or the magnitude or extent to which it is observably expressed—an observable characteristic or trait of an organism, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, or behavior.
- Phonemic awareness
- Awareness of the component sounds within words.
- Piaget’s theory
- Theory that development occurs through a sequence of discontinuous stages: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.
- Pinna
- Outermost portion of the ear.
- Placebo effect
- When receiving special treatment or something new affects human behavior.
- Population
- In research, all the people belonging to a particular group (e.g., the population of left handed people).
- Positive psychology
- The science of human flourishing. Positive Psychology is an applied science with an emphasis on real world intervention.
- Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
- A neuroimaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting the presence of a radioactive substance in the brain that is initially injected into the bloodstream and then pulled in by active brain tissue.
- Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
- A sense of intense fear, triggered by memories of a past traumatic event, that another traumatic event might occur. PTSD may include feelings of isolation and emotional numbing.
- Practitioner-Scholar Model
- A model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes clinical practice.
- Prediction error
- When the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial (i.e., when the US is surprising). Prediction error is necessary to create Pavlovian conditioning (and associative learning generally). As learning occurs over repeated conditioning trials, the conditioned stimulus increasingly predicts the unconditioned stimulus, and prediction error declines. Conditioning works to correct or reduce prediction error.
- Prejudice
- An evaluation or emotion toward people based merely on their group membership.
- Prejudice
- Prejudice is an evaluation or emotion toward people merely based on their group membership.
- Preoperational reasoning stage
- Period within Piagetian theory from age 2 to 7 years, in which children can represent objects through drawing and language but cannot solve logical reasoning problems, such as the conservation problems.
- Preparedness
- The idea that an organism’s evolutionary history can make it easy to learn a particular association. Because of preparedness, you are more likely to associate the taste of tequila, and not the circumstances surrounding drinking it, with getting sick. Similarly, humans are more likely to associate images of spiders and snakes than flowers and mushrooms with aversive outcomes like shocks.
- Primacy of the Unconscious
- The hypothesis—supported by contemporary empirical research—that the vast majority of mental activity takes place outside conscious awareness.
- Primary auditory cortex
- Area of the cortex involved in processing auditory stimuli.
- Primary somatosensory cortex
- Area of the cortex involved in processing somatosensory stimuli.
- Primary visual cortex
- Area of the cortex involved in processing visual stimuli.
- Priming
- Priming: the activation of certain thoughts or feelings that make them easier to think of and act upon
- Priming
- A stimulus presented to a person reminds him or her about other ideas associated with the stimulus.
- Principle of inverse effectiveness
- The finding that, in general, for a multimodal stimulus, if the response to each unimodal component (on its own) is weak, then the opportunity for multisensory enhancement is very large. However, if one component—by itself—is sufficient to evoke a strong response, then the effect on the response gained by simultaneously processing the other components of the stimulus will be relatively small.
- Probability
- A measure of the degree of certainty of the occurrence of an event.
- Probability values
- In statistics, the established threshold for determining whether a given value occurs by chance.
- Problem-focused coping
- A set of coping strategies aimed at improving or changing stressful situations.
- Thoughts, actions, and feelings that are directed towards others and which are positive in nature.
- Pseudoscience
- Beliefs or practices that are presented as being scientific, or which are mistaken for being scientific, but which are not scientific (e.g., astrology, the use of celestial bodies to make predictions about human behaviors, and which presents itself as founded in astronomy, the actual scientific study of celestial objects. Astrology is a pseudoscience unable to be falsified, whereas astronomy is a legitimate scientific discipline).
- Psychic causality
- The assumption that nothing in mental life happens by chance—that there is no such thing as a “random” thought or feeling.
- Psychoanalytic therapy
- Sigmund Freud’s therapeutic approach focusing on resolving unconscious conflicts.
- Psychodynamic therapy
- Treatment applying psychoanalytic principles in a briefer, more individualized format.
- Psychogenesis
- Developing from psychological origins.
- Psychological essentialism
- The belief that members of a category have an unseen property that causes them to be in the category and to have the properties associated with it.
- Psychological vulnerabilities
- Influences that our early experiences have on how we view the world.
- Psychomotor agitation
- Increased motor activity associated with restlessness, including physical actions (e.g., fidgeting, pacing, feet tapping, handwringing).
- Psychomotor retardation
- A slowing of physical activities in which routine activities (e.g., eating, brushing teeth) are performed in an unusually slow manner.
- Psychoneuroimmunology
- A field of study examining the relationship among psychology, brain function, and immune function.
- Psychophysics
- Study of the relationships between physical stimuli and the perception of those stimuli.
- Psychosexual stage model
- Probably the most controversial aspect of psychodynamic theory, the psychosexual stage model contends that early in life we progress through a sequence of developmental stages (oral, anal, Oedipal, latency, and genital), each with its own unique mode of sexual gratification.
- Psychosomatic medicine
- An interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on how biological, psychological, and social processes contribute to physiological changes in the body and health over time.
- Punisher
- A stimulus that decreases the strength of an operant behavior when it is made a consequence of the behavior.
- Qualitative changes
- Large, fundamental change, as when a caterpillar changes into a butterfly; stage theories such as Piaget’s posit that each stage reflects qualitative change relative to previous stages.
- Quantitative changes
- Gradual, incremental change, as in the growth of a pine tree’s girth.
- Quantitative genetics
- Scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms.
- Quantitative law of effect
- A mathematical rule that states that the effectiveness of a reinforcer at strengthening an operant response depends on the amount of reinforcement earned for all alternative behaviors. A reinforcer is less effective if there is a lot of reinforcement in the environment for other behaviors.
- Quasi-experimental design
- An experiment that does not require random assignment to conditions.
- Random assignment
- Assigning participants to receive different conditions of an experiment by chance.
- Realism
- A point of view that emphasizes the importance of the senses in providing knowledge of the external world.
- Reappraisal, or Cognitive restructuring
- The process of identifying, evaluating, and changing maladaptive thoughts in psychotherapy.
- Reciprocity
- The act of exchanging goods or services. By giving a person a gift, the principle of reciprocity can be used to influence others; they then feel obligated to give back.
- Recoding
- The ubiquitous process during learning of taking information in one form and converting it to another form, usually one more easily remembered.
- Reinforced response
- Following the process of operant conditioning, the strengthening of a response following either the delivery of a desired consequence (positive reinforcement) or escape from an aversive consequence.
- Reinforcer
- Any consequence of a behavior that strengthens the behavior or increases the likelihood that it will be performed it again.
- Reinforcer devaluation effect
- The finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable.
- Renewal effect
- Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changed after extinction. Especially strong when the change of context involves return to the context in which conditioning originally occurred. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.
- Representative
- In research, the degree to which a sample is a typical example of the population from which it is drawn.
- Research confederate
- A person working with a researcher, posing as a research participant or as a bystander.
- Research participant
- A person being studied as part of a research program.
- Resilience
- The ability to “bounce back” from negative situations (e.g., illness, stress) to normal functioning or to simply not show poor outcomes in the face of adversity. In some cases, resilience may lead to better functioning following the negative experience (e.g., post-traumatic growth).
- Resting membrane potential
- The voltage inside the cell relative to the voltage outside the cell while the cell is a rest (approximately -70 mV).
- Retina
- Cell layer in the back of the eye containing photoreceptors.
- Retrieval
- The process of accessing stored information.
- Retroactive interference
- The phenomenon whereby events that occur after some particular event of interest will usually cause forgetting of the original event.
- Right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) focuses on value conflicts but endorses respect for obedience and authority in the service of group conformity.
- Rods
- Photoreceptors of the retina sensitive to low levels of light. Located around the fovea.
- SAD performance only
- Social anxiety disorder which is limited to certain situations that the sufferer perceives as requiring some type of performance.
- Sample
- In research, a number of people selected from a population to serve as an example of that population.
- Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
- The hypothesis that the language that people use determines their thoughts.
- Schema
- A mental representation or set of beliefs about something.
- Scientific theory
- An explanation for observed phenomena that is empirically well-supported, consistent, and fruitful (predictive).
- Scientist-practitioner model
- A model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes the development of both research and clinical skills.
- Security of attachment
- An infant’s confidence in the sensitivity and responsiveness of a caregiver, especially when he or she is needed. Infants can be securely attached or insecurely attached.
- Selective attention
- The ability to select certain stimuli in the environment to process, while ignoring distracting information.
- Selective listening
- A method for studying selective attention in which people focus attention on one auditory stream of information while deliberately ignoring other auditory information.
- Self-categorization theory
- Self-categorization theory develops social identity theory’s point that people categorize themselves, along with each other into groups, favoring their own group.
- Self-efficacy
- The belief that one can perform adequately in a specific situation.
- Semantic memory
- The more or less permanent store of knowledge that people have.
- Sensation
- The physical processing of environmental stimuli by the sense organs.
- Sensorimotor stage
- Period within Piagetian theory from birth to age 2 years, during which children come to represent the enduring reality of objects.
- Sensory adaptation
- Decrease in sensitivity of a receptor to a stimulus after constant stimulation.
- Shadowing
- A task in which the individual is asked to repeat an auditory message as it is presented.
- Shape theory of olfaction
- Theory proposing that odorants of different size and shape correspond to different smells.
- Signal detection
- Method for studying the ability to correctly identify sensory stimuli.
- Situation model
- A mental representation of an event, object, or situation constructed at the time of comprehending a linguistic description.
- Society refers to a system of relationships between individuals and groups of individuals; culture refers to the meaning and information afforded to that system that is transmitted across generations. Thus, the social and cultural functions of emotion refer to the effects that emotions have on the functioning and maintenance of societies and cultures.
- A condition marked by acute fear of social situations which lead to worry and diminished day to day functioning.
- The way a person explains the motives or behaviors of others.
- The hypothesis that the human brain has evolved, so that humans can maintain larger ingroups.
- The way people process and apply information about others.
- Social constructivism proposes that knowledge is first created and learned within a social context and is then adopted by individuals.
- Social dominance orientation (SDO) describes a belief that group hierarchies are inevitable in all societies and even good, to maintain order and stability.
- Social identity theory notes that people categorize each other into groups, favoring their own group.
- When one person causes a change in attitude or behavior in another person, whether intentionally or unintentionally.
- The size of your social network, or number of social roles (e.g., son, sister, student, employee, team member).
- The theory that people can learn new responses and behaviors by observing the behavior of others.
- Authorities that are the targets for observation and who model behaviors.
- Networks of social relationships among individuals through which information can travel.
- The branch of psychological science that is mainly concerned with understanding how the presence of others affects our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
- This refers to the process whereby individuals look for information from others to clarify a situation, and then use that information to act. Thus, individuals will often use the emotional expressions of others as a source of information to make decisions about their own behavior.
- The process by which one individual consults another’s emotional expressions to determine how to evaluate and respond to circumstances that are ambiguous or uncertain.
- The perception or actuality that we have a social network that can help us in times of need and provide us with a variety of useful resources (e.g., advice, love, money).
- Zeitgeber is German for “time giver.” Social zeitgebers are environmental cues, such as meal times and interactions with other people, that entrain biological rhythms and thus sleep-wake cycle regularity.
- Sociocultural theories
- Theory founded in large part by Lev Vygotsky that emphasizes how other people and the attitudes, values, and beliefs of the surrounding culture influence children’s development.
- Socioeconomic status (SES)
- A person’s economic and social position based on income, education, and occupation.
- Sodium-potassium pump
- An ion channel that uses the neuron’s energy (adenosine triphosphate, ATP) to pump three Na+ ions outside the cell in exchange for bringing two K+ ions inside the cell.
- Soma
- Cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus and genetic information, and directs protein synthesis.
- Soma
- Cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus and genetic information, and directs protein synthesis.
- Somatogenesis
- Developing from physical/bodily origins.
- Somatosensation
- Ability to sense touch, pain and temperature.
- Somatotopic map
- Organization of the primary somatosensory cortex maintaining a representation of the arrangement of the body.
- Sound waves
- Changes in air pressure. The physical stimulus for audition.
- Spatial Resolution
- A term that refers to how small the elements of an image are; high spatial resolution means the device or technique can resolve very small elements; in neuroscience it describes how small of a structure in the brain can be imaged.
- Specific vulnerabilities
- How our experiences lead us to focus and channel our anxiety.
- Spines
- Protrusions on the dendrite of a neuron that form synapses with terminal buttons of the presynaptic axon.
- Split-brain Patient
- A patient who has had most or all of his or her corpus callosum severed.
- Spontaneous recovery
- Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.
- Stereotype Content Model
- Stereotype Content Model shows that social groups are viewed according to their perceived warmth and competence.
- Stereotypes
- Stereotype is a belief that characterizes people based merely on their group membership.
- Stereotyping
- A mental process of using information shortcuts about a group to effectively navigate social situations or make decisions.
- Stigmatized group
- A group that suffers from social disapproval based on some characteristic that sets them apart from the majority.
- Stimulants
- Stimulants: a class of drugs that speed up the body’s physiological and mental processes.
- Stimulus control
- When an operant behavior is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it.
- Storage
- The stage in the learning/memory process that bridges encoding and retrieval; the persistence of memory over time.
- Strange situation
- A laboratory task that involves briefly separating and reuniting infants and their primary caregivers as a way of studying individual differences in attachment behavior.
- Stress
- A pattern of physical and psychological responses in an organism after it perceives a threatening event that disturbs its homeostasis and taxes its abilities to cope with the event.
- Stressor
- An event or stimulus that induces feelings of stress.
- Structural model
- Developed to complement and extend the topographic model, the structural model of the mind posits the existence of three interacting mental structures called the id, ego, and superego.
- Structuralism
- A school of American psychology that sought to describe the elements of conscious experience.
- Subliminal perception
- The ability to process information for meaning when the individual is not consciously aware of that information.
- Subtle biases
- Subtle biases are automatic, ambiguous, and ambivalent, but real in their consequences.
- Suicidal ideation
- Recurring thoughts about suicide, including considering or planning for suicide, or preoccupation with suicide.
- Superadditive effect of multisensory integration
- The finding that responses to multimodal stimuli are typically greater than the sum of the independent responses to each unimodal component if it were presented on its own.
- Supernatural
- Developing from origins beyond the visible observable universe.
- Synapse
- Junction between the presynaptic terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite, axon, or soma of another postsynaptic neuron.
- Synapses
- Junction between the presynaptic terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite, axon, or soma of another postsynaptic neuron.
- Synaptic Gap
- Also known as the synaptic cleft; the small space between the presynaptic terminal button and the postsynaptic dendritic spine, axon, or soma.
- Synaptic gap
- Also known as the synaptic cleft; the small space between the presynaptic terminal button and the postsynaptic dendritic spine, axon, or soma.
- Synaptic vesicles
- Groups of neurotransmitters packaged together and located within the terminal button.
- Syndrome
- Involving a particular group of signs and symptoms.
- Syntax
- Rules by which words are strung together to form sentences.
- System 1
- Our intuitive decision-making system, which is typically fast, automatic, effortless, implicit, and emotional.
- System 2
- Our more deliberative decision-making system, which is slower, conscious, effortful, explicit, and logical.
- Systematic observation
- The careful observation of the natural world with the aim of better understanding it. Observations provide the basic data that allow scientists to track, tally, or otherwise organize information about the natural world.
- Tastants
- Chemicals transduced by taste receptor cells.
- Taste aversion learning
- The phenomenon in which a taste is paired with sickness, and this causes the organism to reject—and dislike—that taste in the future.
- Taste receptor cells
- Receptors that transduce gustatory information.
- Temperament
- Early emerging differences in reactivity and self-regulation, which constitutes a foundation for personality development.
- Temporal Lobe
- The part of the cerebrum in front of (anterior to) the occipital lobe and below the lateral fissure; involved in vision, auditory processing, memory, and integrating vision and audition.
- Temporal Resolution
- A term that refers to how small a unit of time can be measured; high temporal resolution means capable of resolving very small units of time; in neuroscience it describes how precisely in time a process can be measured in the brain.
- The part of the end of the axon that form synapses with postsynaptic dendrite, axon, or soma.
- Theories
- Groups of closely related phenomena or observations.
- Theory of mind
- Children’s growing understanding of the mental states that affect people’s behavior.
- Thought-action fusion
- The tendency to overestimate the relationship between a thought and an action, such that one mistakenly believes a “bad” thought is the equivalent of a “bad” action.
- Threshold of excitation
- Specific membrane potential that the neuron must reach to initiate an action potential.
- Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
- The inability to pull a word from memory even though there is the sensation that that word is available.
- Top-down processing
- Experience influencing the perception of stimuli.
- Topographic model
- Freud’s first model of the mind, which contended that the mind could be divided into three regions: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. (The “topographic” comes from the fact that topography is the study of maps.)
- “Traitement moral” (moral treatment)
- A therapeutic regimen of improved nutrition, living conditions, and rewards for productive behavior that has been attributed to Philippe Pinel during the French Revolution, when he released mentally ill patients from their restraints and treated them with compassion and dignity rather than with contempt and denigration.
- Trance States
- Trance: a state of consciousness characterized by the experience of “out-of-body possession,” or an acute dissociation between one’s self and the current, physical environment surrounding them.
- Transduction
- The conversion of one form of energy into another.
- Trephination
- The drilling of a hole in the skull, presumably as a way of treating psychological disorders.
- Trichromatic theory
- Theory proposing color vision as influenced by three different cones responding preferentially to red, green and blue.
- Twin studies
- A behavior genetic research method that involves comparison of the similarity of identical (monozygotic; MZ) and fraternal (dizygotic; DZ) twins.
- Tympanic membrane
- Thin, stretched membrane in the middle ear that vibrates in response to sound. Also called the eardrum.
- Type A Behavior
- Type A behavior is characterized by impatience, competitiveness, neuroticism, hostility, and anger.
- Type B Behavior
- Type B behavior reflects the absence of Type A characteristics and is represented by less competitive, aggressive, and hostile behavior patterns.
- Type I error
- In statistics, the error of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true.
- Type II error
- In statistics, the error of failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is false.
- Typicality
- The difference in “goodness” of category members, ranging from the most typical (the prototype) to borderline members.
- Unconditional positive regard
- In person-centered therapy, an attitude of warmth, empathy and acceptance adopted by the therapist in order to foster feelings of inherent worth in the patient.
- Unconditioned response (UR)
- In classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before (or in the absence of) conditioning.
- Unconditioned stimulus (US)
- In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits the response before conditioning occurs.
- Unconscious
- Not conscious; the part of the mind that affects behavior though it is inaccessible to the conscious mind.
- Universalism
- Universalism proposes that there are single objective standards, independent of culture, in basic domains such as learning, reasoning, and emotion that are a part of all human experience.
- Value
- Belief about the way things should be.
- Ventral pathway
- Pathway of visual processing. The “what” pathway.
- Vestibular system
- Parts of the inner ear involved in balance.
- Vicarious reinforcement
- Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person.
- Weber’s law
- States that just noticeable difference is proportional to the magnitude of the initial stimulus.